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<bibimport/>
Author: [[user:Hschwarz|Hans-Jürgen Schwarz]], NN<br>
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== Abstract ==
== Abstract ==


Salts have certain properties. Some of them may help to explain their behaviour in solution and their "damaging" effect on objects.  
Salts have certain properties. Some of them may help to explain their behaviour in solution and their "damaging" effect on objects.  
== [[Solubility]] ==
== [[Deliquescence humidity]] ==


== '''Density''' ==
== '''Density''' ==
The density is a location-independent property of every mineral. It is measured in [g/cm<sup>3</sup>]. The density is only valid for a certain phase; after conversion to another modification, the density changes, e.g.: <br>
The density is a location-independent property of every mineral. It is measured in [g/cm<sup>3</sup>]. The density is only valid for a given phase; if this is modified to another phase, the density changes, e.g.: <br>
Calcite (trigonal): 2.71 g/cm³<br>
*Calcite (trigonal): 2.71 g/cm³<br>
Aragonite (rhombic): 2.04 g/cm³<br>
*Aragonite (rhombic): 2.04 g/cm³<br>


=='''Strength'''==
=='''Mechanical strength and hardness'''==  
Beside density, strength and hardness determine the physical properties of a salt/mineral. Both refer to the cohesion properties that depend on the type and strength of the bounds in the crystal lattice and are thus subject to anisotropy. Also cohesion properties depend on defects in the crystal structures, i.e. measures of strength and hardness differ from the theoretical value.  
Beside density, strength and hardness determine the physical properties of a salt/mineral. Both refer to the cohesion properties that depend on the type and strength of the bonds in the crystal lattice and are thus subject to anisotropy. Also cohesion properties depend on defects in the crystal structures, i.e., measurements of strength and hardness may differ from the theoretical values.  
Like most minerals salts are quite brittle. When a crystal breaks, the fracture can be irregular, conchoidal or splintery, or it can have an even cleavage face. The reason for cleavage is found in the crystal structure. It is very easy along that kind of crystal lattice planes, where the occupation in the lattice is especially dense and there are only a few bounds per unit area. Cleavage along planes with hydrogen bonds or Van der Waals-bonds is almost always perfect. Particularly if the mechanical stress leads to a shift of the crystal lattice in such a way that blocks are facing the same charge, so that a repulsion is achieved.
Like most minerals salts are quite brittle. When a crystal breaks, the fracture can be irregular, conchoidal or splintery, or it can have an even cleavage face. The reason for cleavage is found in the crystal structure. It is facilitated along the crystal lattice planes, where the occupation in the lattice is especially dense and there are only a few bonds per unit area. Cleavage along planes with hydrogen bonds or Van der Waals-bonds is almost always perfect. Particularly, if the mechanical stress applied leads to a shift of the crystal lattice in such a way that blocks are facing the same charge, so that a repulsion is achieved.


Such lattice planes are also important crystal planes, so that cleavage indicates the symmetry and microstructure of a mineral. It’s especially nice to watch the cleavage cracks when studying minerals with a microscope.
These lattice planes are also important crystal planes, so that cleavage indicates the symmetry and microstructure of a mineral. It’s especially important to watch the cleavage cracks when studying minerals with a microscope.


=='''The hardness of minerals:'''==
=='''The hardness of minerals:'''==
Intrusion on the surface of a mineral can occur by scratching, impressing a punch, grinding or planing. Subsequently different defined scales of hardness can be detected and measured with varying methods. The values can be compared with each other.   
Intrusion on the surface of a mineral can occur by scratching, impressing a punch, grinding or planing. Therefore, different scales of hardness can be defined depending on the method used for measuring it. Nonetheless, the values can be compared with each other.   
In mineralogy, the standard method is the scratching method, the so-called scratch hardness according to Mohs. He defined a hardness scale from 1 to 10 on the basis of ten minerals:  
In mineralogy, the standard method is by scratching, the so-called scratch hardness according to Mohs. He defined a hardness scale from 1 to 10 on the basis of ten minerals:  
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The anisotropy that has to be considered when defining the scratching hardness is mostly irrelevant when using the quite rough graduation according to MOHS (e.g. Al<sub>2</sub>SiO<sub>5</sub> - Disten).
The anisotropy that the minerals may have is mostly irrelevan when using the scratching hardness according to the rather rough gradation defined by MOHS (e.g. Al<sub>2</sub>SiO<sub>5</sub> - Disten).


==Melting point==  
==Melting point==  
The most "damaging" salts don’t melt. They decompose before reaching the melting point, or a phase change of the salt into another mineral takes place, so that the resulting melt of a salt has a different composition than the original salt.
The most "damaging" salts don’t melt. They either decompose or change into another mineral phase before reaching the melting point. Therefore, the melt obtained will have a different chemical composition than the original salt.


==Thermal conductivity==
==Thermal conductivity==
In a crystal the thermal conductivity is dependant on the direction (anisotropic) and behaves like the optical orientation of light. Directions with dense packed atoms have a greater conductivity than those with less dense packed atoms, so that different conditions exist within one crystal system.
The thermal conductivity of a crystal may be dependant on its direction (anisotropy) behaving similarly to light transmission following optical orientation. The thermal conductivity anysotropy of crystals results from differences in atom packing of a crystal structure. In directions where atoms are densely packed a higher conductivity will be observed as compared to those where the atoms are more spaced out.
Compared with crystals there is in amorphous solids an isotropic thermal conductivity (heat conduction in all directions of space at the same speed), having only a short-range order of the components and a missing long-range order.
Amorphous solids, having only a short-range order of components and lacking the long-range order of a crystal structure, show an isotropic thermal conductivity,  i.e., heat conduction is the same in all directions.
 
==Thermal expansion==
Like most materials, minerals expand upon heating. The thermal dilataion of crystals is far less than for the case of liquids. The thermal expansion will be different in different directions for anisotropic crystals, i.e., crystals expand differently depending on the heat flow direction. Some minerals may even show a contraction, i.e., a negative expansion, in one direction, while expanding in another.
The irregular deformation of crystals by changes of temperature is the main reason for the so-called temperature weathering.  


==Thermal extension==
For example, the calcite crystsl expands along the axis and contracts along the  
Like most materials, minerals extend while warming. In crystals this thermal dilatation is much lower than in liquids. The thermal extension also depends on the anisotropy, i.e crystals extend differently in the diverse directions. Some minerals even have a negative extension in one direction, i.e they contract.
Also, it is possible to produce a ceramic glass (PLEASE DEFINE) that will not show thermal expansion by carefully controlling the cooling down process and crystal growth within the glass bulk.
The irregular deformation of crystals by changes of temperature is the main reason for so-called temperature weathering.
In technics, a ceramic glass without thermal extension can be produced by a specific controlling of the cooling down process and crystal growth within the glass bulk.  


==Electrical conductivity==
==Electrical conductivity==
The conductivity of ion crystals can be understood as a ion conduction. Crystal defects slip through the lattice. In other words, ideal crystals don’t conduct electricity. As crystal defects are a thermodynamic property (concentration equilibrium) influenced by pressure, temperature and composition, hardly any perfect crystals exist. A thermal induced oscillation of the crystal components around the rest position of an ideal lattice site induce some of the components to leave their site and leave a vacancy. Ion conduction only takes place at high temperatures, because only then the concentration of crystal defects and the thermal energy are large enough to induce an electric conductivity (semiconductor property).<br>
The conductivity of ionic crystals can be considered as being the result of ions moving through a crystal lattice via the defects present in it. In other words, ideal crystals do not conduct electricity. As crystal defects are a thermodynamic property (concentration equilibrium) influenced by pressure, temperature and composition, there are hardly any perfect crystals. A thermal induced oscillation of the crystal components around the rest position of an ideal lattice site induce some of the components to leave their site and leave a vacancy. Ion conduction only takes place at high temperatures, because only then the concentration of crystal defects and the thermal energy are sufficiently large to induce electric conductivity (semiconductor property).<br>
Only in the solved condition hydrated ions are good electric conductors, so called ion conductors.
Only when dissolved in water are hydrated ions are good electric conductors, so called ion conductors.
 
==Color==
Many soluble salts are highly colored. These idiochromatic minerals contain chromophores, coloring elements such as Cr, Mn, Fe, Cu, etc.  Allochromatic minerals gain their color by integrating idiochromatic particles, chromophoric trace elements, or certain defects in their lattice. These  colors are not typical of the mineral and can be very different for one and the same mineral, as for example, quartz, rock crystal when pure and well crystallized, can be purple (amethyst), yellow (topaz) or even greenish (aventurine. In anisotropic minerals, of course, the colour of the mineral depends on the direction. This effect the pleochroism is in some minerals pronounced, such as alexandrite, where the color will change from dark red to greenish orange depending on the direction the crystal is looked at.  


==Colour==
The soluble salts that are relevant for the deterioration of buildings and monuments are mostly colorless, i.e., they may be transparent or appear white depending on the crystal size.
The colour of a mineral is quite unimportant for the salts we dealt with  They are all colourless - white.  Please notice that some coloured (idiochromatic) minerals exist, whose colouring elements (chromophores) like Cr, Mn, Fe, Cu etc.) are an important feature. Allochromatic minerals gain their colour by integrating idiochromatic particles or certain trace elements in their lattice. These  colours are not typical of the mineral and can be very different for one and the same mineral. In anisotropic minerals, of course, the colour of the mineral depends on the direction. This effect the pleochroism is in some minerals pronounced.


==Luster==
==Luster==
The luster of a mineral is an optical effect induced by the reflection of light. High reflections cause a high luster that can be described as a metal, diamond or glassy luster. The specific surface shape also has an influence on the luster (greasy, silky, pearly).
The luster of a mineral is an optical effect induced by the reflection of light. High reflections cause a high luster that can be described as a metallic, diamond-like or glassy luster. The specific surface shape also has an influence on the luster (greasy, silky, pearly).


==Luminescence==  
==Luminescence==  
Luminescence (lat. lumen = cold light) is the property of minerals to convert input energy into visible light. Radio-luminescence: Stimulation by radioactive radiation.  Thermoluminescence: stimulation by application of heat. UV fluorescence: excitation by UV light.
Luminescence (lat. lumen = cold light) is the property of minerals to convert input energy into visible light. Radio-luminescence: Stimulation by radioactive radiation.  Thermoluminescence: stimulation by application of heat. UV fluorescence: excitation by UV light.
Phosphorescence is a light phenomenon in minerals that continues after the time of energy input. It is a temperature-dependent process, where the light energy is stored on an intermediate level and the emission takes place by rising the temperature. Some electrons stay longer on the intermediate level, so that the glow continues for some time after switching off the stimulating rays and fades away slowly.<br>
Phosphorescence is a light phenomenon in minerals that continues after the energy input has stopped. It could be said to be a "delayed" luminescence.
The consequences from birefringence, different forms of refraction and other optical properties are used to identify the salt minerals with a polarising microscope. You will find a more detailed description in the corresponding chapters.
The process is temperature-dependent, where the light energy is stored on an intermediate level and the emission takes place by rising the temperature. Some electrons stay longer on the intermediate level, so that the glow continues for some time after switching off the stimulating rays and fades away slowly.<br>
Other optical propertis, such as birefringence anddifferent forms of refraction are used to identify the salt minerals with a polarizing microscope. Detailed description of these procedures are found in the corresponding chapters.


==Weblinks==
==Weblinks==
<references/>
<references/>

Latest revision as of 09:50, 4 November 2012

<bibimport/>

Author: Hans-Jürgen Schwarz, NN

back to SaltWiki:Community_portal


Abstract[edit]

Salts have certain properties. Some of them may help to explain their behaviour in solution and their "damaging" effect on objects.

Solubility[edit]

Deliquescence humidity[edit]

Density[edit]

The density is a location-independent property of every mineral. It is measured in [g/cm3]. The density is only valid for a given phase; if this is modified to another phase, the density changes, e.g.:

  • Calcite (trigonal): 2.71 g/cm³
  • Aragonite (rhombic): 2.04 g/cm³

Mechanical strength and hardness[edit]

Beside density, strength and hardness determine the physical properties of a salt/mineral. Both refer to the cohesion properties that depend on the type and strength of the bonds in the crystal lattice and are thus subject to anisotropy. Also cohesion properties depend on defects in the crystal structures, i.e., measurements of strength and hardness may differ from the theoretical values. Like most minerals salts are quite brittle. When a crystal breaks, the fracture can be irregular, conchoidal or splintery, or it can have an even cleavage face. The reason for cleavage is found in the crystal structure. It is facilitated along the crystal lattice planes, where the occupation in the lattice is especially dense and there are only a few bonds per unit area. Cleavage along planes with hydrogen bonds or Van der Waals-bonds is almost always perfect. Particularly, if the mechanical stress applied leads to a shift of the crystal lattice in such a way that blocks are facing the same charge, so that a repulsion is achieved.

These lattice planes are also important crystal planes, so that cleavage indicates the symmetry and microstructure of a mineral. It’s especially important to watch the cleavage cracks when studying minerals with a microscope.

The hardness of minerals:[edit]

Intrusion on the surface of a mineral can occur by scratching, impressing a punch, grinding or planing. Therefore, different scales of hardness can be defined depending on the method used for measuring it. Nonetheless, the values can be compared with each other. In mineralogy, the standard method is by scratching, the so-called scratch hardness according to Mohs. He defined a hardness scale from 1 to 10 on the basis of ten minerals:

Table 1: Hardness scale according to Mohs
Mohs hardness Mineral Chemical formula Absolute hardness Image
1 Talc Mg3Si4O10(OH)2 1
2 Gypsum CaSO4·2H2O 3
3 Calcite CaCO3 9
4 Fluorite CaF2 21
5 Apatite Ca5(PO4)3(OH,Cl,F) 48
6 Orthoclase Feldspar KAlSi3O8 72
7 Quartz SiO2 100
8 Topaz Al2SiO4(OH,F)2 200
9 Corundum Al2O3 400
10 Diamond C 1600


The anisotropy that the minerals may have is mostly irrelevan when using the scratching hardness according to the rather rough gradation defined by MOHS (e.g. Al2SiO5 - Disten).

Melting point[edit]

The most "damaging" salts don’t melt. They either decompose or change into another mineral phase before reaching the melting point. Therefore, the melt obtained will have a different chemical composition than the original salt.

Thermal conductivity[edit]

The thermal conductivity of a crystal may be dependant on its direction (anisotropy) behaving similarly to light transmission following optical orientation. The thermal conductivity anysotropy of crystals results from differences in atom packing of a crystal structure. In directions where atoms are densely packed a higher conductivity will be observed as compared to those where the atoms are more spaced out. Amorphous solids, having only a short-range order of components and lacking the long-range order of a crystal structure, show an isotropic thermal conductivity, i.e., heat conduction is the same in all directions.

Thermal expansion[edit]

Like most materials, minerals expand upon heating. The thermal dilataion of crystals is far less than for the case of liquids. The thermal expansion will be different in different directions for anisotropic crystals, i.e., crystals expand differently depending on the heat flow direction. Some minerals may even show a contraction, i.e., a negative expansion, in one direction, while expanding in another. The irregular deformation of crystals by changes of temperature is the main reason for the so-called temperature weathering.

For example, the calcite crystsl expands along the axis and contracts along the Also, it is possible to produce a ceramic glass (PLEASE DEFINE) that will not show thermal expansion by carefully controlling the cooling down process and crystal growth within the glass bulk.

Electrical conductivity[edit]

The conductivity of ionic crystals can be considered as being the result of ions moving through a crystal lattice via the defects present in it. In other words, ideal crystals do not conduct electricity. As crystal defects are a thermodynamic property (concentration equilibrium) influenced by pressure, temperature and composition, there are hardly any perfect crystals. A thermal induced oscillation of the crystal components around the rest position of an ideal lattice site induce some of the components to leave their site and leave a vacancy. Ion conduction only takes place at high temperatures, because only then the concentration of crystal defects and the thermal energy are sufficiently large to induce electric conductivity (semiconductor property).
Only when dissolved in water are hydrated ions are good electric conductors, so called ion conductors.

Color[edit]

Many soluble salts are highly colored. These idiochromatic minerals contain chromophores, coloring elements such as Cr, Mn, Fe, Cu, etc. Allochromatic minerals gain their color by integrating idiochromatic particles, chromophoric trace elements, or certain defects in their lattice. These colors are not typical of the mineral and can be very different for one and the same mineral, as for example, quartz, rock crystal when pure and well crystallized, can be purple (amethyst), yellow (topaz) or even greenish (aventurine. In anisotropic minerals, of course, the colour of the mineral depends on the direction. This effect the pleochroism is in some minerals pronounced, such as alexandrite, where the color will change from dark red to greenish orange depending on the direction the crystal is looked at.

The soluble salts that are relevant for the deterioration of buildings and monuments are mostly colorless, i.e., they may be transparent or appear white depending on the crystal size.

Luster[edit]

The luster of a mineral is an optical effect induced by the reflection of light. High reflections cause a high luster that can be described as a metallic, diamond-like or glassy luster. The specific surface shape also has an influence on the luster (greasy, silky, pearly).

Luminescence[edit]

Luminescence (lat. lumen = cold light) is the property of minerals to convert input energy into visible light. Radio-luminescence: Stimulation by radioactive radiation. Thermoluminescence: stimulation by application of heat. UV fluorescence: excitation by UV light. Phosphorescence is a light phenomenon in minerals that continues after the energy input has stopped. It could be said to be a "delayed" luminescence. The process is temperature-dependent, where the light energy is stored on an intermediate level and the emission takes place by rising the temperature. Some electrons stay longer on the intermediate level, so that the glow continues for some time after switching off the stimulating rays and fades away slowly.
Other optical propertis, such as birefringence anddifferent forms of refraction are used to identify the salt minerals with a polarizing microscope. Detailed description of these procedures are found in the corresponding chapters.

Weblinks[edit]